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Anglo-Saxon paganism, or Anglo-Saxon heathenism[1] refers to the polytheistic religion practised by the Anglo-Saxons, in 5th to 7th century England, during the Migration Period.
It was a form of the larger Germanic paganism, which was found across western and northern Europe. As such it shared many similarities with the two other forms of Germanic paganism; Norse paganism from Scandinavia and the Continental Germanic paganism of continental Europe.
Due to the early Christianisation of England, Anglo-Saxon paganism is sparsely attested, and much more difficult to reconstruct than Norse paganism. Our main sources of evidence are toponymy, archaeology (especially burials such as the one at Sutton Hoo) besides sparse literary testimonies such as Bede's, and what can be glimpsed from surviving works of Anglo-Saxon poetry such as Beowulf.
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Terminology
Anglo-Saxon religion was a cultural phenomenon, and like most pre-literate folk beliefs, the practitioners probably did not have a name for their religion, until they came into contact with Christians. Therefore, the only titles bestowed upon Anglo-Saxon religion are the ones which were used to describe the religion in a competitive manner, such as heathenry (English) or paganism (Latin).
Sources
Because Anglo-Saxon paganism died out many centuries ago, modern historians have to examine two main pieces of evidence to understand the religion of the Anglo-Saxons. The first is literary evidence that was left by early mediaeval writers, and the second is archaeological evidence.
Literary
There is far less literary evidence for Anglo-Saxon paganism than there is for other European pagan religions such as that of the Greeks, Romans and Norse.
The chief literary source is Bede, a Christian monk who wrote of the old English pagan calendar in his work, De Temporum Ratione (meaning The Reckoning of Time), and who mentioned aspects of the pagan religions in other works, such as Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (meaning Ecclesiastical History of the English People).
Only a little Old English poetry has survived, and all of it has had Christian redactors. The epic poem Beowulf is an important source of Anglo-Saxon pagan poetry and history, but it is clearly addressed to a Christian audience, containing numerous references to the Christian God, and using Christian phrasing and metaphor. The monster Grendel, for example, is described as a descendant of the biblical Cain.
The only fragment of poetry dating to the pagan era that has not undergone redaction by Christian editors is the Finnsburgh Fragment. However, references to Anglo-Saxon paganism have survived to varying extents such as in various references found in the Nine Herbs Charm, a mention of Woden in Maxims I of the Exeter Book, and a reference to Woden as the inventor of the runic alphabet in Solomon and Saturn.
Archaeological
Various archaeological discoveries have helped us to establish more about Anglo-Saxon paganism. Most of this has come from burial sites, and only two sites that could be considered to be temples have been found.
One of the most notable discoveries was that of the Sutton Hoo burial site, a cemetery containing a ship burial, the resting site of a pagan king, Rædwald of East Anglia. The treasure from the site is now housed in the British Museum.
Beliefs
Deities
The pagan Anglo-Saxons were polytheists, believing in several different gods and goddesses, the most powerful of whom were a part of a group known as the Ése, the equivalent to the Norse Aesir. Most of these deities were associated with a specific aspect of nature, for instance, Thunor was the god of the sky and thunder.
Being of their Germanic ancestry, the Anglo-Saxon deities were largely the same gods as were worshipped by the Norse and other Germanic peoples. The names vary slightly due to the differences in language among the Germanic tribes. For example, Thunor of the Anglo-Saxons was the same deity as Thor of the Norse and Donar of the Germans. Likewise, Woden of the Anglo-Saxons is the same as Óðinn among the Norse and Wodan of the Germans.
The Anglo-Saxons formed statues of their deities out of wood. However, because of this, none have survived into the contemporary period[2], though examples that were created by Germanic tribes in continental Europe and that have been preserved in bogs are likely to have been similar.
Major deities
The most important deities of the Anglo-Saxons were worshipped amongst the many tribes, as well as their ancestral tribes in continental Europe.
Chief amongst them was Woden, the leader of the Wild Hunt and the one who carries off the dead. He was held to be the ancestor of Hengist and Horsa, two legendary figures from early English history and six of the seven Anglo-Saxon royal houses whose genealogies that we have access to, trace their lineage back to Woden[3]. The word 'Wednesday' in modern English means 'Woden's day'.
Thunor, (Anglo-Saxon: Þunor) was the god of thunder, who ruled the storms and sky. He also protected mankind from the giants. He was the god of the common people within the heathen community[citation needed]. The word 'Thursday' in modern English means 'Thunor's Day'.
Fríge is the goddess of love, and is the wife of Woden[citation needed]. The word 'Friday' in modern English means 'Frige's Day'.
Tiw is the god of warfare and battle, and gives us Tuesday. There is some speculation that he is a sky-god figure and formerly the chief god, displaced over the years by Woden[citation needed]. He was the equivalent to the Norse Tyr and Old german Zîu.
Other gods venerated in Anglo-Saxon England were Ing, a god who is often equated with the Norse Yngvi, and Gēat, a deity associated with the Norse Gautr and German Gausus.
The god Seaxnēat was not worshipped by all the Anglo-Saxons, but only by the East Saxon tribe who settled in southern England and formed the kingdom of Essex.
Eostre, according to Bede, was a goddess whose feast was celebrated in Spring. Bede asserts that the current Christian festival of Easter took its name from the goddess's feast in Eostur-monath Aprilis (modern April). Another deity mentioned by Bede but for whom we have no other information was the goddess Hretha, whose name meant 'glory'.
A goddess known as Helith was, according to local legends, worshipped in Dorset by the Anglo-Saxons, and whose worship St Augustine tried to supress[4].
Cofgodas
The Anglo-Saxons also believed in household deities, known as Cofgodas. These would guard a specific household, and would be given offerings so that they would continue. After Christianisation, it is believed that the belief in Cofgodas survived through the form of the fairy being known as the Hob. Similar beliefs are found in other pagan belief systems, such as the Lares of Roman paganism and the Agathodaemon of Ancient Greek religion.
Mythology
Very little Anglo-Saxon mythology survives to us today. From what we know of it, it revolved around the exploits of the gods, and also of great heroes and legendary figures.
Many different supernatural creatures featured in not only myths, but also in the beliefs of everyday life. These included elves,[5] dwarves,[6] dragons,[7] and giants, all of which could bring harm to men.
Amongst the great mythological figures of the Anglo-Saxons was Hengest and Horsa, who are named in historical sources as leaders of the earliest Anglo-Saxon incursions in the south. It is possible that they were deified[citation needed]. The name Hengest means 'stallion' and Horsa means 'horse'; the horse in the Anglo-Saxon mythos is a potent and significant symbol.
Another figure who appears in Anglo-Saxon mythology was the Geatish hero Beowulf. Whilst not an Anglo-Saxon himself (although the Geats are thought by some to have been one of the tribes who settled in what would become England, and the East Anglian line of kings is believed to have been founded by a Geat), he has an epic tale, also known as Beowulf, based upon him. Beowulf told of the eponymous hero's adventures in Scandinavia as he slew the monster Grendel, who had terrorised the kingdom of Hrothgar, before going on to kill Grendel's mother. He later became a king of Geatland, and lost his life in battle with a dragon who had been terrorising the land. This story may have come from the Wuffing dynasty of East Anglia, who originated in the areas mentioned.
Weyland, Wayland, or Welund, was another mythological figure who was a mythic smith. Originally, he was an elfish being, a shape changer like his wife, a swan maiden and Valkyrie. His picture adorns the Franks Casket, an Anglo-Saxon royal hoard box and was meant there to refer to wealth and partnership. [7]
Cosmology
No firm evidence has been found about the pagan Anglo-Saxon cosmology. There is no evidence to suggest that they believed in the same cosmological world view as the Norse, which featured nine realms situated on a great world tree known as Yggdrasil.
In the Nine Herbs Charm, there is a mention of 'seven worlds', which may be an indication that the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxons believed in seven realms[8].
The Christian Anglo-Saxons referred to the realm humans live on as Middangeard, which corresponded to the Norse Midgard (meaning 'Middle Earth'), and also to a realm called Neorxnawang, corresponding to the Christian idea of Heaven. Whilst these are Christian terms, some scholars have theorised that they may have corresponded to earlier pagan realms[9].
The Anglo-Saxon concept corresponding to fate was wyrd,[2] however some scholars, such as Dorothy Whitelock, have criticised that this was a strong belief amongst the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and was instead a belief held only after Christianisation[10].
Afterlife
The Anglo-Saxons presumably believed in an afterlife because of the great care that they put into burying their dead, and because the other Germanic tribes believed in an afterlife. Anglo-Saxon pagans were either cremated or buried with grave goods[11]. Such grave goods include weapons for men, and household tools for women, though some graves have been found interred with food, possibly to provide nourishment on the path to the afterlife[12].
Festivals
Everything that we know about the Anglo-Saxon religious festivals come from Bede's work De temporum ratione (meaning The Reckoning of Time)[2], which described the calendar of the year.
The Anglo-Saxons followed a calendar comprising of twelve lunar months, with the ocassional year having thirteen months so that the lunar and solar alignment could be corrected[13].
Bede claimed that the greatest pagan festival was Modranicht ('Mother Night'), which was situated at the Winter solstice and was the start of the Anglo-Saxon year[2].
In the month of February, known as Solmonað, Bede claims that the pagans offered cakes to their deities. Another festival was situated around the same time, dedicated to the goddess Eostre, which was a spring festival[2]. The later Christian festival of Easter that was followed at this time apparently took its name from this goddess.
The month of September was known as Halegmonath, meaning 'Holy Month', which may indicate that it had special religious significance[2].
The month of November was known as Blod-Monath, meaning 'Blood Month', and was commemorated with animal sacrifice, both in offering to the gods, and also to gather a source of food to be stored over the winter[2].
Practices
Places of Worship
The pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped the gods in sacred groves and on hills[14]. The classical writer Tacitus, when describing the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, the Germanic peoples of continental Europe, said that:
- They judge that gods cannot be contained within walls... they consecrate groves and woodland glades and call by the names of gods that mystery which only perceive by the same sense of reverence.
The Anglo-Saxons also built temples, as they are described in a letter by Pope Gregory the Great to Abbot Melitus. Two such temple sites have been excavated.
Worship
Anglo-Saxon pagan worship was similar to the Norse practise of Blót.
- November in Old English was known as blótmónað, as this passage points out:
- Se mónaþ is nemned on Léden Novembris, and on úre geþeóde blótmónaþ, forðon úre yldran, ðá hý hǽðene wǽron, on ðam mónþe hý bleóton á, ðæt is, ðæt hý betǽhton and benémdon hyra deófolgyldum ða neát ða ðe hý woldon syllan.
- 'This month is called Novembris in Latin, and in our language the month of sacrifice, because our forefathers, when they were heathens, always sacrificed in this month, that is, that they took and devoted to their idols the cattle which they wished to offer.' ([8] trans. Joseph Bosworth)
- The English word 'bless' ultimately derives from Proto-Germanic *blothisojan (meaning 'to smear with blood'), which denotes the sacrificial aspect of the term.
- A ritual drinking feast in which mystical revelation was achieved through drinking alcohol, usually mead. This mystical revelation is typically associated with divination, and the quest for good fortune by alignment with the forces of destiny, the wyrd. The participants at symbel other than the drinkers themselves were the symbelgifa, the giver of the symbel or host, the scop or poet (the entertainment), the alekeeper (the server of the ale), and the þyle who was charged with keeping order (to a greater or lesser extent).
Magic
Anglo-Saxon pagans believed in magic and witchcraft, and practitioners of such things were known as wicce. The early Christians prohibited such practices.
'We enjoin, that every priest zealously promote Christianity, and totally extinguish every heathenism; and forbid well worshipings, and necromancies, and divinations, and enchantments, and man worshipings, and the vain practices which are carried on with various spells, and with 'frithsplots', and with elders, and also with various other trees, and with stones, and with many various delusions, with which men do much of what they should not. — And we enjoin, that every Christian man zealously accustom his children to Christianity, and teach them the Paternoster and the Creed. And we enjoin, that on feast days heathen songs and devil's games be abstained from.'' (ecclesiastical canons of King Edgar, AD 959)[15]
A magic item that survived destruction by the clerics is the Franks Casket, an Anglo-Saxon royal hoard box with runic inscriptions (whalebone, early 7th century). It bears scenes of Roman and Germanic background as well as a picture of the Magi adoring Christ. These carvings along with runic inscriptions were meant to influence the fate, O.E. wyrd, of its owner, a warrior king. The image of the “Holy three Kings” may have saved the box from purgatory.
It is possible to conclude from the foregoing that magical practice was rife, and that water, tree and stone worship in various forms were also practiced by the Anglo-Saxons. Interesting also is the mention of frithspottum, relating as it does to the core concept of frith, ostensibly meaning 'peace' but having much deeper significance and a far broader spread of implications.
History
Origins
The Anglo-Saxons, (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) comprised of Germanic tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, and they arrived in Britain from the areas that are now southern Denmark, the Netherlands and northern Germany in the 5th century[16].
The native Britons who were already living in Britain, who largely comprised of Celtic and Roman peoples, were either forced out or subjugated by the invading Anglo-Saxons. These Romano-Celtic Britons had followed Christianity ever since it had replaced both Celtic paganism and Roman paganism in the 3rd century.
The Anglo-Saxons brought their religious beliefs and practises with them to Britain, and the areas in which they settled became known as 'Engla-land', and eventually 'England'. The areas that they did not settle became the nations of Cornwall, Wales and Scotland.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were not united, and divided the land into eight kingdoms; Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia (East Angles), Essex (East Saxons), Wessex (West Saxons), Sussex (South Saxons), Kent and Dumnonia. Certain deities and religious practises were specific to a certain tribe, for instance, Seaxneat was only worshipped in Essex, as he was seen as a protector deity of the East Saxon tribe.
Christianisation
The transition of the Anglo-Saxons from paganism to Christianity took place gradually, over the course of the 7th century, influenced on one side by Celtic Christianity and the Irish mission, on the other by Roman Catholicism introduced to England by Augustine of Canterbury in 597. The Anglo-Saxon nobility were nearly all converted within a century, (conversion brought about greater trade opportunities with neighbouring countries both to the west in Ireland and Wales, and to the east, in France), but paganism among the rural population, as in other Germanic lands, didn't so much die out as gradually blend into folklore.
When the Christian missionaries arrived in Britain, they did not attempt to simply obliterate any trace of the old religion, but they Christianised its festivals and converted its temples into churches. Pope Gregory the Great instructed Abbot Mellitus that:
- I have come to the conclusion that the temples of the idols in England should not on any account be destroyed. Augustine must smash the idols, but the temples themselves should be sprinkled with holy water, and altars set up in them in which relics are to be enclosed. For we ought to take advantage of well-built temples by purifying them from devil-worship and dedicating them to the service of the true God.[17]
Many Anglo-Saxon pagan practises were transformed into Christian practises, for instance, the Christian festival of Easter was adapted from a previous Anglo-Saxon pagan spring festival devoted to the goddess Eostre, and the word 'Easter' itself was an adaptation of 'Eostre'.
The last pagan king of Anglo-Saxon England was Arwald, who was killed in battle in 686 by the Christian king, Cædwalla of Wessex.
Germanic paganism again returned to England in the form of Norse paganism, which was brought to the country by Norse Vikings from Scandinavia in the 9th to 11th century, but which again succumbed to Christianisation.
Influence
Place names
Many place names across England are named after the old gods of the English people, for instance, Frigedene and Freefolk are named after Frige, Thundersley after Thunor, and Woodway House, Woodnesborough and Wansdyke named after Woden[18].
Days of the Week
- Further information: Days of the week
The seven day planetary week originated in Hellenistic Egypt by the 2nd century BC, and was taken over in the interpretatio romana of the Greek gods in the Roman Empire period, named for Sol, Luna, Mars, Mercurius, Jupiter, Venus and Saturnus. The English language days of the week are, with the exception of Saturday (which was named after Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture and harvest), loan-translations of the Latin names, by the interpretatio romana of Germanic deities.
While Sunday and Monday may be considered straighforward translation of Dies Solis 'day of the Sun' and Dies Lunae 'day of the Moon', the names of Tuesday (Tiw's day, translating 'Mars' day'), Wednesday (Woden's day, translating 'day of Mercury'), Thursday (Thunor's day, translating 'day of Jupiter') and Friday (Frige's day, translating 'day of Venus') make clear that the loan-translation was based on theonyms rather than celestial bodies.
Neopaganism
In the 20th century, with the rise of the Neopagan movement, a reconstructed form of Anglo-Saxon paganism arose in the 1970s as a subset of Germanic neopaganism, in the form of Theodism.
A tradition of Wicca, known as Seax-Wica, founded by Raymond Buckland in 1973, uses the symbolism and iconography of Anglo-Saxon paganism, but in a traditional Wiccan framework.
References
- ^ [1]
- ^ a b c d e f g The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles, Ronald Hutton, (1991), Page 274
- ^ The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles, by Ronald Hutton, (1991), page 265
- ^ [2]
- ^ The Real Middle-Earth, Brian Bates, page 101
- ^ The Real Middle-Earth, Brian Bates, page 216
- ^ The Real Middle-Earth, Brian Bates, page 80
- ^ [3]
- ^ Jeep (2001:554)
- ^ The Lost Gods of England, Brian Branston, (1957), Page 34
- ^ http://englishheathenism.homestead.com/heathenburial.html
- ^ http://englishheathenism.homestead.com/heathenburial.html
- ^ [4]
- ^ [5]
- ^ Thorpe, Benjamin, Monumenta Ecclesiastica, London (1840), ii, p. 249, cited after Margaret Alice Murray, The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) [6]
- ^ Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests
- ^ The Lost Gods of England, Brian Branston, page 45
- ^ The Lost Gods of England, Brian Branston, Page 29-30
External links
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