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| Jesus of Nazareth | |
 6th-century mosaic of Jesus at Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna. Though depictions of Jesus are culturally important, no undisputed record of Jesus' appearance is known to exist.
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| Born | 7–2 BC/BCE Bethlehem, Judea (traditional) |
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| Died | 26–36 AD/CE Calvary, Judea. (According to the New Testament, he rose on the third day after his death.) |
| Cause of death | Crucifixion (Muslim scholars dispute the Gospel claim that Jesus was crucified) |
| Resting place | Traditionally and temporarily, a garden tomb located in what is now the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[1] |
| Ethnicity | Jewish |
| Occupation | Carpenter, itinerant preacher, Rabbi |
| Home town | Nazareth, Galilee, current Israel |
Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC/BCE — 26–36 AD/CE),[2][3] also known as Jesus Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and is revered by most Christian churches as the Son of God and the incarnation of God. Islam considers Jesus a prophet, and he is an important figure in several other religions. Judaism rejects the claim that Jesus is the Messiah and incarnate God.
The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical gospels, especially the Synoptics,[4] though some scholars argue that other texts (such as the Gospel of Thomas) are as relevant as the canonical gospels to the historical Jesus.[5] Most critical scholars in the fields of history and biblical studies believe that ancient texts on Jesus' life are at least partially accurate,[6][7] agreeing that Jesus was a Galilean Jew who was regarded as a teacher and healer. They also generally accept that he was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on orders of the Roman Prefect of Judaea Pontius Pilate, on the charge of sedition against the Roman Empire.[8][9] Aside from these few conclusions, academic studies remain inconclusive about the chronology, the central message of Jesus' preaching, his social class, cultural environment, and religious orientation.[10] Scholars offer competing descriptions of Jesus as the awaited Messiah,[11] as a self-described Messiah, as the leader of an apocalyptic movement, as an itinerant sage, as a charismatic healer, and as the founder of an independent religious movement.
Christian views of Jesus (see also Christology) center on the belief that Jesus is divine, is the Messiah whose coming was prophesied in the Old Testament, and that he was resurrected after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is the 'Son of God' (generally meaning that he is God the Son, the second person in the Trinity), who came to provide salvation and reconciliation with God by his death for their sins. Other Christian beliefs include Jesus' virgin birth, performance of miracles, ascension into Heaven, and a future Second Coming. While the doctrine of the Trinity is widely accepted by Christians, a small minority instead hold various nontrinitarian beliefs concerning the divinity of Jesus.[12]
In Islam, Jesus (Arabic: عيسى, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets,[13][14] a bringer of scripture, and a worker of miracles. Jesus is also called 'Messiah', but Islam does not teach that he was divine. Islam denies the death and resurrection of Jesus, believing instead that he ascended bodily to heaven.[15]
Contents
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Etymology
The name “Jesus” is an Anglicisation of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs), itself a Hellenisation of the Hebrew יהושע (Yehoshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic ישוע (Yeshua), meaning “YHWH rescues”. “Christ” is a title derived from the Greek Χριστός (Christós), meaning the “Anointed One”, which corresponds to the Hebrew-derived “Messiah”.[16]
Chronology
Scholars do not know the exact year or date of Jesus' birth or death. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke place Jesus' birth under the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 BC/BCE,[17] although the Gospel of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea in 6 AD/CE.[18] Scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.[19] Due to a fourth century arrangement to offset the pagan Roman Saturnalia festival, the birth of Jesus is celebrated on December 25. Since the thirteenth century, the celebration of Christmas ('Christ's Mass') has become an important Christian tradition.[20] The common Western standard for numbering years, in which the current year is 2009, is based on an early medieval attempt to count the years from Jesus' birth.
Jesus' ministry followed that of John the Baptist.[21] The Gospels, Josephus, and Tacitus name Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect who had Jesus crucified, and Pilate was prefect of Judea between 26 and 36 AD/CE.[22] According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, Jesus was executed after Passover (a Jewish holiday occurring in northern spring) but according to John he was executed earlier in the day of preparation for the passover.[23] Most Christians commemorate Jesus' crucifixion on Good Friday and celebrate his resurrection on Easter Sunday.
Life and teachings, as told in the Gospels
The Bible's four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the principal sources for the Christian biography of Jesus' life as the miraculous Son of God. Critical scholars find valuable historical information about Jesus' life and ministry in the synoptic gospels but more or less discount much of the miraculous and theological content. According to the two-source hypothesis, Mark defined the sequence of events from Jesus' baptism to the empty tomb and included parables of the Kingdom of God. Separately, Matthew and Luke combined Mark's plot with Jesus' teachings from the hypothetical Q source. Finally, John represents a later tradition from Asia Minor (Anatolia), followed at last by Mark's traditional ending.
The Gospels (especially Matthew) present Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection as fulfillments of prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible. See, for example, the virgin birth, the flight into Egypt, Immanuel (Isaiah 7:14), and the suffering servant.[24]
Character of Jesus
Each gospel portrays Jesus' life and its meaning differently.[25][26] The gospel of John is not a biography of Jesus but a theological presentation of him as the divine Logos.[27] To combine these four stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story, one different from each original.[26]
Mark presents Jesus as a heroic, charismatic man of action and mighty deeds.[25] Matthew portrays him especially as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy and as a greater Moses.[25] Luke emphasizes Jesus' miraculous powers and his support for the poor and for women.[25] John views Jesus' earthly life as a manifestation of the eternal Word.[25]
Logos
The Gospel of John opens with a hymn identifying Jesus as the divine Logos, or Word, that formed the universe (John 1:1-5;9-14).[28] Jesus' earthly life was the Logos incarnate (John 1:14).[28]
Genealogy and family
Of the four gospels, only Matthew[29] and Luke[30] give accounts of Jesus' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different,[31] and contemporary scholars generally view the genealogies as theological constructs.[32] More specifically, some have suggested that Matthew wants to underscore birth of a messianic child of royal lineage (mentioning Solomon) whereas Luke's genealogy is priestly (mentioning Levi).[33] Both accounts trace his line back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with Solomon and proceeds through the kings of Judah to the last king, Jeconiah. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when Babylon conquered Judah. Thus, Matthew shows Jesus as a descendant of the kings of Israel. Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to Adam and provides more names between David and Jesus.
Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood. No mention, however, is made of Joseph during the ministry of Jesus.
The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians tell of Jesus' relatives, including words sometimes translated as 'brothers' and 'sisters'.[34][35] Luke also mentions that Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist, was a 'cousin' or 'relative' of Mary (Luke 1:36), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus.
Nativity and early life
According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the Holy Spirit.
In Luke, the angel Gabriel visits Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the Son of God (Luke 1:26–38). An order of Caesar Augustus had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in Nazareth and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of David, for the Census of Quirinius. After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a manger in place of a crib because of a shortage of accommodation (Luke 2:1–7). An angel announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who left their flocks to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see The First Noël).
In Matthew, the 'Wise Men' or 'Magi' bring gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believe was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born (Matthew 2:1–12). King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the 'massacre of the innocents').[36] The family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, whereupon they settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus (Matthew 2:19–23).
Jesus' childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Except for Matthew's 'flight into Egypt', and a short trip to Tyre and Sidon (in what is now Lebanon), the Gospels place all other events in Jesus' life in ancient Israel.[37]
Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple (Luke 2:41–52) is the only event between Jesus' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels, however infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. According to Luke, Jesus was 'about thirty years of age' when he was baptized (Luke 3:23). In Mark, Jesus is called a carpenter. Matthew says he was a carpenter's son, however, the Greek word used in the Gospel is 'tekton' meaning 'builder', which suggests he could have been an artisan of some type as well.(Mark 6:3, Matthew 13:55).
Baptism and Temptation
All three synoptic Gospels describe the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the Jordan River where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus 'saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'' (Mark 1:10–11).
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Mark starts his narration with Jesus' baptism, specifying that it is a token of repentance and for forgiveness of sins.[25] Matthew omits this reference, emphasizing Jesus' superiority to John.[25][38] Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, 'It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness' (Matthew 3:15). In Matthew, God's public dedication informs the reader that Jesus has become God's anointed ('Christ').[25]
Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he fasted for forty days and forty nights (Matthew 4:1–2). During this time, the devil appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused temptation with a quotation of scripture from the Book of Deuteronomy. The devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13, Luke 4:1–13).
The Gospel of John does not describe Jesus' baptism, or the subsequent Temptation, but it does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John had been preaching — the Son of God. The Baptist twice declares Jesus to be the Lamb of God, a term found nowhere else in the Gospels. John also emphasizes Jesus' superiority over John.[25] John doesn't record Jesus' temptation in the wilderness. In John, Jesus leads a program of baptism in Judea, and his disciples baptize more people than John (John 3:22-23, John 4:1-3).
Ministry
In the synoptics as well as in John, Jesus has a ministry of teaching and miracles, at least part of which is in Galilee.[39] In the synoptics, Jesus speaks in parables and aphorisms, exorcises demons, champions the poor and oppressed, and teaches mainly about the Kingdom of God.[40] In John, Jesus speaks in long discourses, with himself as the theme of his teaching.[40]
Jesus' purpose
Mark says that Jesus came to 'give his life as a ransom for many'; [41] Luke, that he was sent to 'preach the good news of the Kingdom of God',[42], and John, that he came so that 'those who believed in him would have eternal life'.[43]
Duration and location
John describes three different passover feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry, implying that Jesus preached for at least 'two years plus a month or two'.[44] The Synoptic Gospels suggest a span of only one year.[45][46] In the synoptics, Jesus' ministry takes place mainly in Galilee, until he travels to Jerusalem, where he cleanses the Temple and is executed.[47] In John, Jesus spends most of his ministry in and around Jerusalem, cleansing the temple at his ministry's beginning.[47]
Disciples
In all four Gospels, Jesus calls some Jewish men to be his Twelve Apostles. None of them seems to have been a peasant (an agricultural worker). At least four are described as fishermen and another as a tax collector. Three of them are presented as being chosen to accompany Jesus on certain special occasions, such as the transfiguration of Jesus, the raising of the daughter of Jairus, and the Agony in the Garden. Jesus speaks of the demands of discipleship, telling a rich man to sell his possessions and give the money to the poor. He states that his message divides family members against each other.[48]
In Mark, the disciples are strangely obtuse, failing to understand Jesus' deeds and parables.[49] In Matthew, Jesus directs the apostles' mission only to those of the house of Israel (Matthew 15:24, Matthew 10:1-6). Also in Matthew, Jesus confers authority on Peter in particular and on the apostles in general, founding the Christian church. Luke places a special emphasis on the women who followed Jesus, such as Mary Magdalene.[50]
Teachings and preachings
In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus speaks primarily about the Kingdom of God (or Heaven).[45] In Matthew and Luke, he speaks further about morality and prayer. In John, he speaks at length about himself and his divine role.[45]
At the height of his ministry, Jesus is said to have attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of Galilee and Perea (in modern-day Israel and Jordan respectively).[51]
Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the Sermon on the Mount, which contains the Beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer. It is one of five collections of teachings in Matthew.[36]
In the Synoptics, Jesus often employs parables, such as the Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke) and the Parable of the Sower (all Synoptics).
His moral teachings in Matthew and Luke encourage unconditional self-sacrificing God-like love for God and for all people.[citation needed] During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, turning the other cheek, love for one's enemies as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of the law in addition to the letter.[52]
In the Synoptics, Jesus leads an apocalyptic movement. He preaches that the end of the current world will come unexpectedly, and that he will return to judge the world, especially according to how they treated the vulnerable. He calls on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. In Mark, the Kingdom of God is a divine government that will forcibly appear within the lifetimes of his original followers.[49] Matthew describes false Messiahs, disasters, tribulations, and signs in the heavens that will portend Jesus' return, which is also described as unexpected.[36]
Outreach to outsiders
Table fellowship is central to Jesus' ministry in the Gospels.[53] He and his disciples eat with sinners (who neglect purity rules)[47] and tax collectors (imperial publicani, despised as extortionists). The apostle Matthew is a tax collector. When the Pharisees object to Jesus eating with sinners and tax collectors, Jesus replies that it is the sick who need a physician, not the healthy.[47][54] Jesus also defends his disciples against charges that they do not follow purity laws when eating. Jesus himself is also accused of being a drunk and a glutton.[47] Jesus' miracles and teachings often involve food and feasting.[53] He instructs his missionaries to eat with the people that they preach to and heal.[53] In the synoptics, Jesus institutes a new covenant with a ritual meal before he is crucified.
Jesus' outreach to outsiders includes the Samaritans, who followed a different form of the Israelite religion, as reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of Sychar (John 4:1–42) and in the Good Samaritan.
At various times, Jesus makes a point of welcoming sinners, children, women, the poor, Samaritans, foreigners, and possibly eunuchs.
Transfiguration and Jesus' divine role
In the synoptic gospels, Jesus leads three select disciples — Peter, John, and James — to the top of a mountain.[49] While there, he is transfigured before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; Elijah and Moses appear adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadows them, and a voice from the sky says, 'This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased'.[55] The Transfiguration is a turning point in Jesus ministry.[56] Just before it and thereafter, Jesus warns that he is to suffer, die and rise again.[56]
In Mark, Jesus' identity as the Messiah is obscured (see Messianic secret).[57] Mark states that 'this generation' will be given no sign, while Matthew and Luke say they will be given no sign but the sign of Jonah.[58] In John, and not in the synoptics, Jesus is outspoken about his divine identity and mission.[59] Here he punctuates his ministry with several miraculous signs of his authority.
In John, Jesus declares that belief in the Son brings eternal life, that the Father has committed powers of judgment and forgiveness to the Son, and that He is the bread of life, the light of the world, the door of the sheep, the good shepherd, the resurrection and the life, the way, the truth, and the life, and the real vine.[28] Here Jesus uses the phrase 'I am' in talking of himself John 8:58 in ways that designate God in the Hebrew Bible Exodus 3:14, a statement taken by some writers as claiming identity with God.[60]
Arrest, trial, and death
In Jerusalem
According to the Synoptics, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, 'Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!'[61] Following his triumphal entry,[62] Jesus created a disturbance at Herod's Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers who set up shop there, and claiming that they had made the Temple a 'den of robbers'.(Mark 11:17) Later that week, Jesus celebrated the Passover meal with his disciples — an event subsequently known as the Last Supper — in which he prophesied that he would be betrayed by one of his disciples, and would then be executed. In this ritual he took bread and wine in hand, saying: 'this is my body which is given for you' and 'this cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood', and instructed them to 'do this in remembrance of me' (Luke 22:7–20). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the Garden of Gethsemane.
In Mark and Matthew, Jesus is anguished in the face of his fate.[56][63] He prays and accepts God's will, but his chosen disciples repeatedly fall asleep on the watch.[56][63] In Luke, Jesus prays briefly at the Mount of Olives, and his disciples fall asleep out of grief.[64]
In John, Jesus has already cleansed the temple a few years before and has been preaching in Jerusalem. He raises Lazarus on the Sabbath, the act that finally gets Jewish leaders to plan his death.[28] At the Last Supper, Jesus washes the disciples' feet and there is no new covenant of bread and wine.[28] Jesus gives the farewell discourses, discussing the Paraclete, persecution of his followers, the coming of the Holy Spirit, and more.[28] He says a long, final prayer with his disciples before heading to a garden where he knows Judas will show up.[65]
Arrest
While in the Garden, Jesus was arrested by temple guards on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the high priest, Caiaphas (Luke 22:47–52, Matthew 26:47–56). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large (Mark 14:2). Judas Iscariot, one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with a kiss. Simon Peter, another one of Jesus' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.[66] Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating 'all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword' (Matthew 26:52). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding.
Trials before the Sanhedrin and Pilate
In Mark, Jesus affirms that he is the Messiah before the Sanhedrin, the only time in the Gospel that he makes such a claim.[49] The Jewish leaders turn him over to Pilate for execution, but Pilate is reluctant to execute Jesus.[49] In an attempt to spare Jesus' life, Pilate offers the mob a chance to free him, but they choose Barabbas instead, so that the responsibility for Jesus' execution falls on the Jews rather than on the Romans[49], as expressed in the Gospel of Matthew by the Jewish crowd's proclamation, “His blood be upon us and on our children.”[67] Matthew adds the details that Pilate's wife, tormented by a dream, urges Pilate not to have anything to do with Jesus, and Pilate washes his hands of responsibility.[36][68] Luke adds the detail that Pilate sends Jesus to Herod, who has authority over Galileans, but that Herod, like Pilate, finds him guilty of nothing treasonous.[50] In John, Jesus makes no claim to be the Son of God or the Messiah to the Sanhedrin or to Pilate, even though this gospel proclaims Jesus' divinity from the beginning.[28]
Death
In Mark, Jesus is stripped, flogged, mocked, and crowned with thorns.[49] He is crucified between two thieves, and his cross states that he is being executed for aspiring to be the king of the Jews.[49] He begins to recite Psalm 22, 'My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me.'[49] He utters a loud cry and dies.[49] According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at Calvary, which was also called Golgotha. In Luke, Jesus faces his crucifixion stolidly.[26] He asks God to forgive those who are crucifying him, possibly the Romans and possibly the Jews.[50] One of the thieves states that Jesus has done nothing wrong and asks Jesus to remember him in the Kingdom, and Jesus replies that the thief will be with him in Paradise.[50] The Synoptic Gospels tell of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an earthquake (Matthew 27:51), the earth breaking open and a number of righteous dead people rising out of the grave and going into Jerusalem. John omits the natural phenomena accompanying Jesus' death.[28]
Resurrection and Ascension
The Gospels state that Jesus rose from the dead on Sunday.[69] All the Gospels portray Jesus' empty tomb. In Matthew, an angel appears near the tomb of Jesus and announces his resurrection to Mary Magdelene and 'another Mary' who had arrived to anoint the body (Matthew 28:1–10). Jewish elders bribe the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to spread the rumor that Jesus' disciples took his body.[70] In Luke, there are two angels (Luke 24:4), and in Mark the angel appears as a youth dressed in white (Mark 16:5). The 'longer ending' to Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene (Mark 16:9). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name (John 20:11–18).
The Gospels all record appearances by Jesus, including an appearance to the eleven.[71] In Mark, Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene, to two disciples in the country, and to the eleven, at which point Jesus commissions them to announce the gospel, baptize, and work miracles.[70] In Matthew, Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene and to the eleven on a mountain, at which points he commissions them to enlist followers, baptize, and teach what Jesus taught.[70] Although his own mission and his disciples' missions had been to the Jews,[72] here he sends the eleven to the whole world (see Great Commission). In Luke, he appears to two disciples in the country and to the eleven.[70] He proves to them that he has a body, opens their minds to understand the scripture about the Messiah, and directs them to wait in Jerusalem until they are invested with power.[70] In John, Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene and to the eleven. He demonstrates his physical reality to doubting Thomas.[70][25] Later he appears to seven disciples who are fishing, and finally talks with Peter, foretelling Peter's death[70] and assigning him the principle role as shepherd of the new community.[70][73]
In Mark and Luke, Jesus ascends to the heavens[74] after these appearances. In Luke, Jesus ascends on Easter Sunday evening when he is with his disciples.[70] In Mark, Jesus' Ascension to heaven, where he sits at God's right hand, is said to have taken place but not described as a visible event.[70] John implies the Ascension[75] without describing it.[70]
Historical views
Scholars have used the historical method to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus' life. Over the past two hundred years, the image of Jesus among historical scholars has come to be very different from the common image of Jesus that was based on the gospels.[76] Scholars of historical Jesus distinguish their subject from the 'Jesus Christ' of Christianity,[40] while other scholars hold that Jesus Christ cannot properly be treated as merely a historical religious figure.[77][78] The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the gospels, especially the synoptic gospels: Mark, Matthew, and Luke. Including the Gospels, there are no surviving historical accounts of Jesus written during his life or within three decades of his crucifixion.[79] Biblical scholars and historians accept the historical existence of Jesus.[80][81][82][83][84]
The English title of Albert Schweitzer's 1906 book, The Quest of the Historical Jesus, is a label for the post-Enlightenment effort to describe Jesus using critical historical methods.[85] Since the end of the 18th century, scholars have examined the gospels and tried to formulate historical biographies of Jesus. Contemporary efforts benefit from a better understanding of 1st-century Judaism, renewed Roman Catholic biblical scholarship, broad acceptance of critical historical methods, sociological insights, and literary analysis of Jesus' sayings.[85]
Constructing a historical view
Historians analyze the gospels to try to discern the historical man on whom these stories are based. They compare what the gospels say to historical events relevant to the times and places where the gospels were written. They try to answer historical questions about Jesus, such as why he was crucified.
Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of the Jewish Temple by the Romans under Titus in the year 70, and that the other gospels were written between 70–100.[86] The historical outlook on Jesus relies on critical analysis of the Bible, especially the gospels. Many scholars have sought to reconstruct Jesus' life in terms of the political, cultural, and religious crises and movements in late Second Temple Judaism and in Roman-occupied Palestine, including differences between Galilee and Judea, and between different sects such as the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,[87][88] and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation.
Descriptions
Historians generally describe Jesus as a healer who preached the restoration of God's kingdom.[89] Most historians agree he was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified by the Romans. Jewish and Roman authorities in Jerusalem were wary of Galilean patriots, many of whom advocated or launched violent resistance to Roman rule.[90] The gospels demonstrate that Jesus, a charismatic leader regarded as a potential troublemaker, was executed on political charges.[90]
John the Baptist led a large apocalyptic movement. He demanded repentance and baptism. Jesus was baptized and later began his ministry. After John was executed, some of his followers apparently took Jesus as their new leader.[91] Historians are nearly unanimous in accepting Jesus' baptism as a historical event.[91]
According to Robert Funk, Jesus taught in pithy parables and with striking images.[92] He likened the Kingdom of Heaven to small and lowly things, such as yeast or a mustard seed,[92] that have great effects. He used his sayings to elicit responses from the audience, engaging them in discussion.[53]
Jesus placed a special emphasis on God as one's heavenly father.[92]
Names and titles
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Jesus Christ and Christianity |
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Cultural and historical background |
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Perspectives on Jesus |
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Jesus in culture |
Jesus probably lived in Galilee for most of his life and he probably spoke Aramaic and Hebrew.[93] The name 'Jesus' comes from an alternate spelling of the Latin (Iēsus) which in turn comes from the Greek name Iesous (Ιησους). The name has also been translated into English as 'Joshua'.[94] Further examination of the Septuagint finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/Aramaic Yeshua (ישוע) (Yeshua — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע Yeho — Yahweh [is] shua` — deliverance/rescue, usually Romanized as Joshua). Scholars believe that one of these was likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.[95]
Christ (which was a title before becoming a name for Jesus) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for Messiah (Anointed One - χριστός, from the verb χρίω 'to anoint'). In the Old Testament, the term Anointed One (משׁיח) was applied to those set apart for some function in the service of God, as for instance in Leviticus 4:3-5 to the priest. But it was applied more particularly to the king. In Isaiah and Jeremiah the word began to be applied to a future ideal king. The New Testament has some 500 uses of the word χριστός applied to Jesus, used either generically or in an absolute sense, namely as the Anointed One (the Messiah, the Christ). The Gospel of Mark has as its central point of its narrative Peter's confession of Jesus as the Messiah (Mark 8:29). 1 Corinthians 15:3 indicates that the conviction that Jesus was the Messiah dates back to before the letters of Paul the Apostle. These letters also show that the title was already beginning to be used as a name.[96]
Some have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.[97]
The titles 'Divine', 'Son of God', 'God', 'God from God', 'Lord', 'Redeemer', 'Liberator', 'The Prince of Peace', 'The Wonder Counsellor', and 'Saviour of the World' were each applied to the Roman emperors. John Dominic Crossan considers that the application of them to Jesus by the early Christians would have been regarded as denying them to the emperor(s). 'They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called majestas and we call high treason.'[98]
Geza Vermes has argued that 'Son of man' was not a title but rather the polite way in which people referred to themselves, i.e. a pronomial phrase.[99]
'Son of David' is found elsewhere in Jewish tradition to refer to the heir to the throne.[100]
'Son of God' was often used to designate a person as especially righteous.[101]
'Emmanuel' or 'Immanuel' derives from the Hebrew name Immanu-El, which translates as 'God (is) with us' and is based on a Messianic interpretation of a verse in the Hebrew Bible, Isaiah 7:14, 'They shall call his name Immanuel'.
Many New Testament scholars argue that Jesus himself made no claims to being God.[102][103][104][105][106][107][108] Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of views as to what exactly this implied.[109]
Religious groups
Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group.
Pharisees
Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st-century Judea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.[110] After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisee outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.[111] In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce (Mark 10:1–12).[112] Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment (Mark 12:28–34) and the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12).
Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would be like if there were.[47]
Sadducees
The Sadducee sect was particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, it seems[weasel words] to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.[113]
Essenes
Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the New Testament.[114] Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. Among these scholars is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that 'it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community.'[115]
Apocalyptic sect
Most scholars hold that the movement Jesus led was apocalyptic, expecting God to intervene imminently to restore Israel. John the Baptist's movement was apocalyptic, and Jesus began his public career as one of his followers.[116] Scholars commonly surmise that Jesus' eschatology